THE LION CITY has a looming water shortage. The Public Utilities Board (PUB) has announced that, at present rates of water consumption, Singapore could face a shortage by 2001.
In 1994, Singapore's annual water consumption increased by a record 6.5 percent, up from an average rise of 5.2 percent in the past four years and 3.3 percent a year between 1985 and 1990. At first glance, these figures don't seem unduly alarming. But a close look at Singapore's water resources shows just how much of a premium the island places on water.
With no rivers or lakes to tap for fresh water, Singapore's only indigenous source of water is rainfall collected in its 14 reservoirs. This has never been sufficient to slake the domestic thirst, so Singapore has had to turn to neighbouring Malaysia to make up the shortfall. This dependency goes back to the turn of the century when the island began importing water from the south Malaysian state of Johor.
Today, Singapore draws water from Johor under two agreements: A 1961 contract gives Singapore rights to extract 86 million gallons of water per day (mgd) from Mount Pulai and the Tebrau and Skudai rivers; and under a 1962 agreement, Singapore can draw up to 250mgd from the Johor river and Linggui reservoir.
While the 1962 agreement runs until the year 2061, the 1961 deal expires in 2011, and this is the focus of current concern about water supplies. In six years, a decade before the agreement is due for renewal, rising demand for water will exceed the supply available from Malaysia.
Whether the Johor state authorities will allow Singapore to draw more than the total 336mgd permitted under the 1961 and 1962 agreements is an issue that has not yet been broached. Singapore's PUB and the Ministry of Trade and Industry (MTI), which oversees the PUB, are instead exploring options for other sources of water, and trying to restrain water consumption through tax rises and public campaigns.
In his last budget, finance minister Richard Hu announced a rise in Singapore's water consumption tax rate from 10 percent to 15 percent for households using more than 20 cubic metres of water a month and to 20 percent for industrial users. This went into effect on April 1.
The tax rise may depress consumption this year, but the PUB believes the answer to long-term water conservation lies with changing behaviour patterns and not just with monetary disincentives. To impress upon the public the necessity of conservation, the PUB has launched a 'Save Water' campaign.
This still may not ensure that future water supplies meet demand. According to MTI projections, even if the rise in consumption slows to 6 percent a year, Singapore will still face a water shortage by 2001.
The gravity of the situation is forcing an evaluation of other conservation measures. Households account for 55 percent of Singapore's water consumption and the flushing of toilets is a major culprit: Proposals for reducing water consumption include switching to smaller water cisterns and using industrial water for flushing.
Alternative sources of fresh water must be found. Building more reservoirs isn't possible in land-scarce Singapore and damming the sea between islands wouldn't provide a big enough catchment area for rainfall. Two other ideas being considered by the authorities are importing water from Indonesia and desalinating sea water.
Tapping Indonesia as a future water source would be an extension of Singapore's tradition of relying on its neighbours. In 1991, Singapore signed a memorandum of understanding with Indonesia that would allow it to draw up to 1,000mgd of water from Bintan island in the Riau archipelago and from the Kampar river in Sumatra. While the potential supply is huge, the cost of the infrastructure to transport the water to Singapore will be enormous. On a cubic metre basis, it could multiply the current cost of water by five to eight times.
Desalination appears attractive given Singapore's limitless supply of sea water, but it consumes vast amounts of energy. Preliminary estimates based on current fuel costs suggest that desalinated water could cost seven to eight times more than current supplies.
A joint PUB/MTI team has visited desalination plants in Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates and Malta to examine the feasibility of desalination, but a report isn't expected for at least 18 months. If favourable, PUB officials are talking about having a pilot desalination plant ready six to seven years after that.
Whatever the eventual choice, one thing is certain: Singaporeans will have to face larger bills as the cost of both desalination and supplies from Indonesia make water a more precious commodity.
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In 1994, Singapore's annual water consumption increased by a record 6.5 percent, up from an average rise of 5.2 percent in the past four years and 3.3 percent a year between 1985 and 1990. At first glance, these figures don't seem unduly alarming. But a close look at Singapore's water resources shows just how much of a premium the island places on water.
With no rivers or lakes to tap for fresh water, Singapore's only indigenous source of water is rainfall collected in its 14 reservoirs. This has never been sufficient to slake the domestic thirst, so Singapore has had to turn to neighbouring Malaysia to make up the shortfall. This dependency goes back to the turn of the century when the island began importing water from the south Malaysian state of Johor.
Today, Singapore draws water from Johor under two agreements: A 1961 contract gives Singapore rights to extract 86 million gallons of water per day (mgd) from Mount Pulai and the Tebrau and Skudai rivers; and under a 1962 agreement, Singapore can draw up to 250mgd from the Johor river and Linggui reservoir.
While the 1962 agreement runs until the year 2061, the 1961 deal expires in 2011, and this is the focus of current concern about water supplies. In six years, a decade before the agreement is due for renewal, rising demand for water will exceed the supply available from Malaysia.
Whether the Johor state authorities will allow Singapore to draw more than the total 336mgd permitted under the 1961 and 1962 agreements is an issue that has not yet been broached. Singapore's PUB and the Ministry of Trade and Industry (MTI), which oversees the PUB, are instead exploring options for other sources of water, and trying to restrain water consumption through tax rises and public campaigns.
In his last budget, finance minister Richard Hu announced a rise in Singapore's water consumption tax rate from 10 percent to 15 percent for households using more than 20 cubic metres of water a month and to 20 percent for industrial users. This went into effect on April 1.
The tax rise may depress consumption this year, but the PUB believes the answer to long-term water conservation lies with changing behaviour patterns and not just with monetary disincentives. To impress upon the public the necessity of conservation, the PUB has launched a 'Save Water' campaign.
This still may not ensure that future water supplies meet demand. According to MTI projections, even if the rise in consumption slows to 6 percent a year, Singapore will still face a water shortage by 2001.
The gravity of the situation is forcing an evaluation of other conservation measures. Households account for 55 percent of Singapore's water consumption and the flushing of toilets is a major culprit: Proposals for reducing water consumption include switching to smaller water cisterns and using industrial water for flushing.
Alternative sources of fresh water must be found. Building more reservoirs isn't possible in land-scarce Singapore and damming the sea between islands wouldn't provide a big enough catchment area for rainfall. Two other ideas being considered by the authorities are importing water from Indonesia and desalinating sea water.
Tapping Indonesia as a future water source would be an extension of Singapore's tradition of relying on its neighbours. In 1991, Singapore signed a memorandum of understanding with Indonesia that would allow it to draw up to 1,000mgd of water from Bintan island in the Riau archipelago and from the Kampar river in Sumatra. While the potential supply is huge, the cost of the infrastructure to transport the water to Singapore will be enormous. On a cubic metre basis, it could multiply the current cost of water by five to eight times.
Desalination appears attractive given Singapore's limitless supply of sea water, but it consumes vast amounts of energy. Preliminary estimates based on current fuel costs suggest that desalinated water could cost seven to eight times more than current supplies.
A joint PUB/MTI team has visited desalination plants in Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates and Malta to examine the feasibility of desalination, but a report isn't expected for at least 18 months. If favourable, PUB officials are talking about having a pilot desalination plant ready six to seven years after that.
Whatever the eventual choice, one thing is certain: Singaporeans will have to face larger bills as the cost of both desalination and supplies from Indonesia make water a more precious commodity.
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